End Notes:

¹ Interview #043(2004) on file with ERI.
² Interview #040 (2004) on file with ERI.
³ Field Document #5 (2003) on file with ERI.
⁴ The statistics were extrapolated by the International Labour Organization (ILO) in 1999. Cited in J. Hinton, M. Veiga, and C. Beinhoof. “Women and Artisanal Mining: Gender Roles and the Road Ahead.” In The Socio-Economic Impacts of Artisanal Mining and Small-Scale Mining in Developing Countries, (ed.) J. Hinton (Netherlands: A.A. Balkema, Swets Publishers, 2003), 1. According to Oxfam, inattention to women’s roles and rights in relation to the activities of the mining industry is widespread. See Ingrid Macdonald and Claire Rowland (eds.). Tunnel Vision: Women, Mining and Communities (Victoria, Australia: Oxfam Community Aid Abroad, 2002) available at http://www.oxfam.org.au/campaigns/mining/women/tunnelvisionreport.pdf.
⁵ According to Oxfam, inattention to women’s roles and rights in relation to the activities of the mining industry is widespread. See Ingrid Macdonald and Claire Rowland (eds.). Tunnel Vision: Women, Mining and Communities (Victoria, Australia: Oxfam Community Aid Abroad, 2002) available at http://www.oxfam.org.au/campaigns/mining/women/tunnelvisionreport.pdf.
⁶ EarthRights International. Capitalizing on Conflict (Chiang Mai, Thailand: ERI, 2003).For a more theoretical discussion of this issue, see Jonathon DiJohn. Mineral Resource Abundance and Violent Political Conflict: A Critical Assessment of the Rentier State Model (London: Crisis States Programme, London School of Economics, December 2002); Mining, Minerals, and Sustainable Development Project. Breaking New Ground: Mining, Minerals, and Sustainable Development (London: Earthscan, 2002).
⁷ See, for example, M. Than Htay. “Myanmar,” in Mining Annual Review (London: Mining Journal, Ltd., 2002) available in CD-ROM format; Yolanda Fong-Sam. “The Mineral Industry of Burma,” in U.S. Geological Survey Minerals Yearbook-2002 (Washington D.C.: USGS, 2003) available at http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/country/2002/bmmyb02.pdf; The Economic Intelligence Unit, Country Profile 2002: Myanmar (Burma) (London: The Economist, 2003), 15; David Steinberg. Burma: The State of Myanmar (Washington D.C.: Georgetown University Press, 2001), 146-147.
⁸ For further discussion, see Hilson, G. (ed). The Socio-Economic Impacts of Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining in Developing Countries. (Rotterdam: Taylor and Francis Publications, 2003; Hinton, J.J. and et al. “Clean Artisanal Gold Mining: A Utopian Approach?” Journal of Cleaner Production 2003 11(2): 99-115.
⁹ The description that follows is largely based on S. K. Samuels. Burma Ruby: A History of Mogok's Rubies from Antiquity to the Present (Tucson: SKS Enterprises, Inc., 2003), 127-135. See also R. Hughes. Ruby and Sapphire (Fallbrook, CA: RWH Publishing, 1997).
¹⁰ Myanmar Ivanhoe Cooper Co. Ltd. (MICCL), a joint venture, operates the Sabetaung and Kyisintaung Mines (S&K Mines) and the Letpadaung Mine, which is located a short distance away. Ivanhoe Myanmar Holding, Ltd. (IMHL), by contrast, is a subsidiary of Ivanhoe Mines, Ltd. of Canada. IMHL is presently exploring gold deposits in Mandalay Division and has the right to establish a joint venture to develop deposits at a future date. More information on Ivanhoe Mines in Burma is available at its official website: http://www.ivanhoe-mines.com.
¹¹ For further discussion of this issue, see C. Nordstrom. “Shadows and Sovereigns.” Theory, Culture, and Society 17:4 (2000): 35-54.
¹² Artisanal mining is extremely widespread. In fact, according to the ILO, there are thirteen million artisanal miners in fifty-five countries (1999 figures), which is equivalent to the total global workforce of large-scale industrial mines. See Jennifer Hinton, “Women and Artisanal Mining: Gender Roles and the Road Ahead.” In The Socio-Economic Impacts of Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining in Developing Countries, ed. G. Hilson. Netherlands: A.A. Balkema, Swets Publishers, 2003), 1.
¹³A number of important studies have been conducted on this topic. See, for example, Betsy Apple, School for Rape: The Burmese Military and Sexual Violence (Washington D.C.: ERI, 1998); Shan Human Rights Foundation and the Shan Women’s Action Network, License to Rape: The Burmese Military Regime’s Use of Sexual Violence in the Ongoing War in Shan State, Burma (Chiang Mai: SHRF and SWAN, 2002); Betsy Apple and V. Martin, No Safe Place: Burma’s Army and the Rape of Ethnic Women (Washington D.C.: Refugees International, 2003); Karen Women’s Organization, Shattering Silences (Thailand: KWO, 2004).
¹⁴ Mines and Communities, “Drilling Starts in Myanmar” (23 March 2004) available at http://www.minesandcommunities.org/Action/press303.htm; Leeward Capital Corporation, “Set Ga Done Progress Report June 17, 2004”; Myanmar Ivanhoe Cooper Co. Ltd. (MICCL), a joint venture, operates the Sabetaung and Kyisintaung Mines (S&K Mines) and the Letpadaung Mine, which is located a short distance away. Ivanhoe Myanmar Holding, Ltd. (IMHL), by contrast, is a subsidiary of Ivanhoe Mines, Ltd. of Canada. IMHL is presently exploring gold deposits in Mandalay Division and has the right to establish a joint venture to develop deposits at a future date. More information on Ivanhoe Mines in Burma is available at its official website: http://www.ivanhoe-mines.com.
¹⁵ Further information, including electronic copies of some of the papers that were presented is available at http://www.mmpindia.org/womenmining.htm.
¹⁶The full name of this person is not used here to protect her identity. In Burma, those who speak out against the government must conceal their identities for fear of reprisals.
¹⁷ Myanmar Gems and Jewelry, “The Government of the Union of Myanmar Ministry Mines Fourth Round Invitation for Bids to Conduct Mineral Prospecting, Mineral Exploration, and Feasibility Study in Myanmar”.
¹⁸ See also, “Myen hpyen du Malihka dut sha.” Kachin Post Newspaper, Laika bap1, Hti Hkum 5 (September 2002, page 7).
¹⁹ Interviews BF (9/9/2002) and BH (2002) on file with ERI.
²⁰ Global Witness. A Conflict of Interest (London: GW, 2003), available at http://www.globalwitness.org/reports/index.php?section=burma.
²¹ Alan Rabinowitz. “Valley of Death,” in National Geographic 2004 (April): 106.
²² For more details, see “Statement of the International Women and Mining Network Third International Women and Mining Conference,” available at http://www.mmpindia.org/womenminingstatement.htm.
²³ United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, “Injecting Drug Use (IDU) and HIV/AIDS,” available at http://www.unodc.org/myanmar/en/report_2001-02-21_1_page006.html.
²⁴ For details, see the report prepared by Mrs. Fatma Zohra Ksentini for the UN Sub-Commission on the Prevention of Discrimination and the Protection of Minorities (E/CN.4/Sub.2/1994/9). In it, she argues that a clean environment is a basic human right.
²⁵ Interview BG (9/24/2002) on file with ERI.
²⁶ Interview BE (9/6/2002) on file with ERI.
²⁷ Interview BC (8/29/2002) on file with ERI.
²⁸ Interview BG (9/24/2002) on file with ERI.
²⁹ For an overview, although not somewhat dated, see R. Bryant. “The Greening of Burma: Political Rhetoric Or Sustainable Development?” Pacific Affairs 1996 69(3): 341-59.
³⁰ ILO. Social and Labour Issues in Small-Scale Mines (1999).
³¹ “Mercury: How Much is Safe?” Rachel’s Environment and Health Weekly (7 May 1998), No. 587.
³² J. Hinton, M. Veiga, and C. Beinhoof. “Women and Artisanal Mining: Gender Roles and the Road Ahead.” In The Socio-Economic Impacts of Artisanal Mining and Small-Scale Mining in Developing Countries, (ed.) G. Hilson (Netherlands: A.A. Balkema, Swets Publishers, 2003), 10.
³³ Project Underground. “The Gold Album,” available at http://www.moles.org/ProjectUnderground/reports/goldpack/goldpack_i.html.
³⁴ERI Interviews #037 (2004), #039 (2004) on file with ERI.